Fijan Pre-History :: Fiji History Culture Fijians Essays

Fijan Pre-History The most remarkable aspect of Fijian pre-history is its antiquity. It is now known that people had reached the Fijian archipelago as early as 2000 years before the birth of Christ. Considering the fact that the Vikings, acknowledged as Europe's greatest sailors, didn't reach American until three thousand years later, or the fact that Columbus made his famous voyage only some five hundred years ago, the Fijian achievement must be seen as extraordinary. The question is, who were the first settlers. And the answer is that we don't know. There are some who are prepared to speculate and Dr Roger Green, Professor of Anthropology at Auckland University, in New Zealand is one of them. He calls this vast archipelago "Island of South East Asia". These migrants were relatively new, even though they were different from those of the people already living in the islands of Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Hebrides (now Vanuatu) and New Caledonia. The first settlers were of Negrito stock with dark skin, woolly hair and other typical features. The newcomers were fairer, had straight or wavy black hair and we can assume were of many type stock. they would seem to have been good sailors and craftsmen and excellent potters who made a distinct type of ware we know as Lapita pottery after its initial discovery in New Caledonia. A picture emerges of these "Lapita" people. Sailors, adventurers, good navigators and consummate craftsmen. The trail of their pots, hooks, obsidian cutting tools and ornaments leads down from New Britain through some of the outer islands fringing the Solomons and Vanuatu, suggesting that perhaps they were not powerful enough to force settlements on the bigger islands which were already supporting large populations of people. In this classic difference between the two groups we see the racial characteristics of what was later to be defined as Melanesian and Polynesian stock. The Melanesians were to retain their grip on the western island of the south Pacific but it can be fairly assumed that a great deal of the "Lapita" blood found its way into its main stream. At some stage, about 2000 years before the birth of Christ, a canoe load of adventurous "Lapita" sailors either deliberately set out to the east or were driven off course by a westerly wind and made landfall in the Fijian archipelago. Dr. Green's theory is that these were the first settlers, not only because at that time they would have had the necessary maritime technology, but also because their pottery is found throughout the whole of Fiji.

Why The Ideas Of Karl Marx Were So Radical To Society :: History Politics Political

Why The Ideas Of Karl Marx Were So Radical To Society The Communist Manifesto, written in 1848, provided the views of Karl Marx on humans and nature. For the time in which the document was written, the ideas of Marx were very radical to society. The ongoing struggle between the Proletarians( the working class) and the Bourgeois( the owners) prompted Marx to develop a solution to this social problem. His solution to this historical problem was to create a capitalist nation, which in the end would result in a Communist nation. He wanted to help the social status of the working class, because he felt that they were being taken advantage of by the owners. The document also discusses the role of humans and their interaction with nature. Marx believed that society was beginning to break away from nature as a source of economical support. In the past, humans had relied heavily on agriculture to support themselves but with the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, new technology began to replace old farming techniques and created new factory jobs in cities. Marx had rather extreme views on the extent to which nature in his time had become humanized as a result of human labor.[1] He commented that, â€Å" Even the objects of the simplest â€Å" sensuous certainty† are only given him through social development, industry and commercial intercourse.†[2] "Throughout their labor, humans shape their own material environment, thereby transforming the very nature of human existence in the process.†[3] One had always seemed to know their role in society. It was Marx who believed that this was true due to a capitalistic economy. One’s wants and needs were different from society to society. For instance, a person with a higher social status would not have the same needs as a peasant living on a farm would. Marx felt that human nature could not be changed in contrast to what many economists believed. In a capitalistic economy, men were the ones who received the wages while women earned little to nothing. To put an end to the ongoing struggle between social classes, Marx believed that a new form of government would have to be established, this he called Socialism. 4 He wanted to see the working class join together to fight the owners, for in order for a society to grow, people would need to begin working together. Marx recognized the struggles of the classes, especially those of the middle class.

Wit by Margaret Edson

Wit Every student has at some point in his or her educational career had a teacher that seemed completely unreasonable and immune to any sympathy towards the student. In the play Wit by Margaret Edson the main character is Dr. Vivian Bearing who is an esteemed professor of early 17th century poetry and fits the bill of the hard-nosed stubborn professor. This character is diagnosed with cancer and the play is about her treatments and battle with the cancer that ultimately at the end of the play leads to her death. Throughout the play itself Dr.Bearing goes through many trials and tribulations and her interactions with the audience, doctors, former students, and herself all show how she goes through stages in order to come to terms with her illness. In the first stage of the play where Vivian is initially diagnosed she shows signs of defiance, which gives the play a real life scenario feeling because it is natural to be in denial for a person under her circumstances. She feels as if sh e can beat this disease and get back to teaching as soon as possible. There are many of times that she tells the doctors (and audience) to keep giving the highest dosing of chemotherapy.Dr. Bearing understands what she is going to go through and is in terms with that on an intellectual level. She even reads books on medical terminology so as to not feel inferior to the doctors when they are reading her charts to her. This also shows the sense of denial and ignorance Dr. Bearing has to the big picture. And this big picture is that in the end she will die. All her life she has been studying and she relates to the two doctors in that way because they are taking her as information and data and she respects that in the beginning.Her attitude toward being treated as data begins to change and she begins to resent that feeling. Then she has a flashback to a certain point in her teaching career that she was the same way with her students. This one particular student asked for an extension on a paper because he had to travel home due to his grandmother dying. Dr. Bearing responds by saying, â€Å"Do what you want, but the paper is due when it is due. † This flashback hits home to her because she understands how the student felt because she is now being treated that way by the doctors which angers her.Throughout the play there is one character that sees Dr. Bearing as a human being, not just data. This is Susie, the head nurse assigned to care for Vivian. These two have an interesting relationship. The entire time Dr. Bearing is in the hospital no one visits her and really Susie is the only person actually caring for her. In the beginning of the play it seems that the main character is annoyed by Susie in a way because at times she corrected her and despised the question of, â€Å"How are you feeling today? † This slowly begins to change and the relationship switches when Susie tries to talk to Dr.Bearing about reducing the chemotherapy treatments. Both of the characters realize now that the cancer is not diminishing and is continually spreading so Susie is showing compassion by not simply labeling her and wanting her to suffer in order to collect more data. Dr. Bearing comes to terms with this and enters a stage of depression. During this part of the play Vivian distances herself from human contact even more and spends her days simply in bed alone, only having little communication with Susie. The last emotion Dr. Vivian Bearing goes through is that of recognition.This last part of the play also shows the development and trust in the relationship between Susie and Bearing. Dr. Bearing tells Susie, not her head doctor, family member, or anyone else that she wants to be labeled as a DNR (Do Not Resuscitate) patient. A decision like this is generally talked over between a patient and family or the head physician but Vivian sees that Susie is the only person who cares for her in some way at this point in her life basically. The characters throughout the play help Dr. Bearing come to terms with her illness, whether it is positively or negatively.The former student of hers’ and when she told that story to the audience showed her how she was missing that feeling of compassion both for and now towards her. While she does not regret how she taught she realizes that she should have treated the students better because she is feeling how they felt with how the doctors are treating her now. In the end it is Susie who helps Dr. Bearing grasp and accept the fact that she is going to die, but she will not die alone now because of her knew friend Susie and that is what Dr. Bearing has been searching for all along, company and support.

Great Gatsby Essay Essay

This quarter I read The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald. The Great Gatsby is a fiction novel published in 1925. It takes place in New York, 1922 and follows the story of a great man named Gatsby. Although Gatsby is the main character, the book is in perspective and supposedly written by Nick Carraway, a friend of Gatsby. This novel has a very developing story line that hits all kinds of moods, happy, sad, and mysterious. The main character of this story is Jay Gatsby, whose real name is actually James Gatz. Gatsby is a very wealthy man, he has a huge mansion and hosts great parties that attract very famous and respected individuals. Gatsby’s fortune is a mystery to everyone; he tells different people different stories. Gatsby starts the story as a very smooth and intelligent man, who has seemed to have done great things in life. As the story ends, Gatsby starts to lose his suave behavior because he has lost the one he loves. Gatsby does the right thing towards the end of the story when he realizes that Daisy will not be in his life. Gatsby decides to take a swim in his pool, which he has never done before. I think this symbolizes him letting go of his dream to be with Daisy, which makes it okay for him to die. I can relate to Gatsby in the sense that he does everything he possibly can to win over one girl. I think that that shows true ambition, which I see a lot of in myself. Other characters in this novel include; Nick Carraway, Tom & Daisy Buchannan, Jordan Baker, and George & Myrtle Wilson. Nick Carraway is the narrator of the story, he is a wholesome young man who is fascinated by Gatsby, and becomes one of his greatest friends. Nick meets Jordan Baker, a famous golfer, and dates her for some time. Daisy Buchannan is the woman that Gatsby is in love with, but she is married to Tom Buchannan. Tom Buchannan is a successful man who is determined to not let Gatsby get in the way of his marriage, although Tom is seeing someone else: Myrtle Wilson. Myrtle is married to George; they own a car maintenance shop. Myrtle ends up dying at the hands of Daisy, but Gatsby takes the blame and is later killed by George Wilson. The setting of this story is in the heart of the roaring twenties. It takes place in New York City and Long Island, in the summer of 1922. The author really produces a visual scene when describing Gatsby’s parties, and his mansion. It has helped me to understand the glamour of this time period. On one particular day in the story, it is the hottest day of the summer; this is also the day that the climax of the story takes placing. I think that the author’s description of the heat added a very dramatic and relatable affect to the story and scene. It was very exciting to picture New York City and some of its residents in the time period. I think the author shows the reader a few different themes and meanings in his story. One of these themes is the spirit of the twenties. I think the author really wanted to show the reader the true glamour and style of the twenties. During this time period, everyone’s goal was to fulfill the â€Å"American Dream. † In this story, Gatsby both fulfills and doesn’t fulfill the American dream. Yes, Gatsby is popular and wealthy, and the talk of the town, but he doesn’t have the love of his life, and his fortune was created through scam and illegal distribution of alcohol, which doesn’t show to be impressive. I think that the main theme of this story is about the consequences of your past while aspiring for the future. Daisy is in love with Gatsby and his fortune but the fact that he is a bootlegger does not impress her enough to be with him. This story has encouraged me to strive towards a life with meaning, and happiness within myself. The Great Gatsby starts with Nick Carraway, who has recently moved to New York and is neighbors with Gatsby. One night, Nick visits with his cousin Daisy, and her husband Tom Buchannan. There he meets Jordan Baker, whom which he later has a romance with. During his time spent with the three of them, Nick learns that Daisy is unhappy in her marriage and that Tom is seeing another woman. When Nick gets home that night, he sees Gatsby standing in his (Gatsby’s) yard, staring off a green light, which is the Buchannan home. This moment in the story is an example of symbolism, since Gatsby is not aware yet that that is where Daisy lives. Nick becomes good friends with Tom and later meets his girlfriend, Myrtle Wilson, and stays for a party at their apartment on night in New York City. Eventually, Nick gets invited for the first time to one of Gatsby’s parties. There he sees Jordan Baker and spends most of his night with her. He is later introduced to Gatsby who shows courtesy and charm to Nick, they become friends. One day when Nick meets with Jordan and Gatsby, he becomes aware of Gatsby’s love for Daisy. Nick agrees to have Daisy over for tea with Gatsby. When that day comes, it is clear that Gatsby and Daisy are still in love and they begin their affair. Gatsby gives up his parties and house servants because Daisy does not approve. I believe the climax of the story to be the very hot summer day where Gatsby makes his confrontation to Tom Buchannan. Nick, Jordan, Daisy, Tom, and Gatsby all rent a suite in a hotel in New York City, this is where Gatsby proclaims his love for Daisy and Daisy tells Tom she never loved him. Tom tries to sell Gatsby out by revealing his ways of obtaining his fortune. Daisy gets upset and admits to the lie she told Tom. Daisy and Gatsby drive home together and on their way, Daisy hits and kills Myrtle with Gatsby’s car. Tom and the others see the accident on their drive home but they are not aware that it was Daisy who killed Myrtle, because Gatsby takes the blame. Daisy decides to stay with Tom, and leave Gatsby be. Meanwhile, Tom tells Myrtle’s husband, George, that it was Gatsby who killed his wife. George finds Gatsby and shoots him while Gatsby is enjoying himself in his swimming pool. Nick, being Gatsby’s best friend, is left to deal with the funeral. He tries desperately to get people to come to Gatsby’s funeral, but no one will. Gatsby’s dad is the only one who shows and he shares memories of Gatsby with Nick. At the beginning of the story, Nick Carraway did not approve of Gatsby’s doings but as the ending resolves, Nick greatly admires Gatsby and the man he was. I enjoyed reading The Great Gatsby. The first time reading this book from cover to cover, it was just a story, but as I wrote this essay and evaluated the characters, I saw so much more meaning behind it. I liked that this book was not cheesy in any sense, and that it takes a talented reader to fully understand its concept. It was challenging at times, and I had to read it slowly, but it paid off. The story’s ending was great. It was sad that Gatsby died, but it was an inevitable event, considering the fact that Gatsby spent his life trying to impress the one girl he loved, who in turn, turned him down.

Marketing Case Study of “Pamela Shampoo” Essay

What alternatives Mr. Alfred Jones have for improving his social position? Was manufacturing a shampoo a right decision? Alfred who engaged in buying and selling of land- a real estate business and brokering deals were known as dalal. When Alfred grew up, he joined his father’s company as a Director in 1980.His father was the Managing Director and Chairperson of the company. Alfred was very successful, growing the business and becoming rich in the process. Despite his financial success, Alfred was concerned about the social status. In 1985, his father retired although he remained the Chairperson. Alfred become Managing Director but did not like his family business anymore because of its low social profile. Mr. Haque-who was the proprietor of small market research firm. During the discussion regarding his family business, Mr. Haque encouraged Alfred to launch a new venture company. Mr. Haque convinced him that starting a new business would help him get rid of the associations with the humiliating term dalal. Production decisions involve the processes by which raw materials are converted into the finished products through manufacturing. These decisions play a very important role in the product quality, cash flow, control etc. The new venture had problems right from the beginning. It failed to reach sales target because Alfred did not do any market research before manufacturing and launching Pamela Shampoo. Despite huge investments, over a period of couple of years, Alfred had become a bankrupt. Manufacturing a shampoo was not a right decision without market research properly. Given that Mr. Jones had financial resource, what process should he follow for developing a business plan and its implementation? Financial resource is using the profits and accumulated savings from his real estate company, he brought a huge area of land for establishing a factory for manufacturing Shampoo. Every business plan, campaign, or project comes down to Tactics, Tools, and Strategies. To conceive, develop, and implement a sound social media marketing strategic plan that will be successful needs  to have those three critical components. The new company was named his wife Pamela and the brand name of the product is Pamela Shampoo. Alfred took some of better employees from J&J and employed them his new venture. He hired new employees and paid them attractive salaries. Alfred allocated substantial amount of money to advertise the new brand of Shampoo. Strategic planning implementation is at the heart of how to make change of any kind happen in your organization. Why the organization might want to embark on a strategic planning process and implementation. Want to be one of the organizations, in which employees understand the mission and goals. ACNielsen retail audit data show FMCG market growing at around 7% (sales 5,097 Crore in 2004 and 5,444 Crore in 2005).Moreover, the shampoo market is growing at a phenomenal rate of 22% a trained that started in early 2000. (Sales 79 Crore in 2004 and 97 Crore in 2005).It failed to reach sales targets and his every venture had slid downhill. Multinational market research Company held clients’ conference and Alfred was invited as a participant from the business community. Alfred talked to them about his Pamela Shampoo venture. The researchers wanted to know whether he had done any market research before manufacturing and lunching Pamela Shampoo. A key to Strategic Planning Implementation Success is to effective strategic planning implementation for the business. Full and active executive support, Effective communication, Employee involvement, Thorough organizational planning and competitive analysis, Widespread perceived need for the strategic planning. 13.3 What are the consumer behaviour issues regarding the purchase of FMCG product like shampoo? What role does brand name, brand image, and  advertising play? What steps must be followed for developing these marketing tactics? Did Pamela Shampoo follow them? FMCG market growing at around 7% .Moreover, the shampoo market is growing at a phenomenal rate of 22%, a trend that started in early 2000.Therefore; Alfred was rightly tempted towards entering the Shampoo market. Consumer decision making varies with the type of buying decision. There are four types of buying behavior that consumer purchase of FMCG products. There are complex buying behavior, dissonance-reducing buyer behavior, habitual buying behavior & varietyseeking behavior. The new company was named after his beloved wife Pamela. As a symbol of his love, the brand name of the product is Pamela Shampoo. Alfred allocated a substantial amount of money to advertise the new brand of Shampoo. A brand is a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or combination of them, intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competitors. So, brand name & brand image is the identity of the product to differentiate them from others. Advertising play the role of introduce the product to others. Market research steps must be followed for developing marketing strategy. For developing marketing tactics we need to take four strategies. That are individual names, blanket family names, separate family names for all products, and company trade name combined with individual product names. Pamela shampoo did not follow them. So, he did not make his business profitable like P&G and Unilever. Consumer purchase shampoo by variety-seeking buying behavior because that buying situation are characterize by low involvement but significant brand differences. Here consumers often do a lot of brand switching. The consumer has some beliefs about shampoo, chooses a brand of shampoo without much evaluation, and evaluates the product during consumption. Next time, the consumer may reach for another brand out of a wish for a different test. Brand switching occurs for the sake of variety rather than dissatisfaction. What can be done to salvage the business? What are the choices and how can Mr. Jones make the decision? First of all Mr. Jones must understand and choose the correct marketing strategy. Good marketing strategy can result in success even for mediocre products. Since the product ‘Pamela Shampoo’ belongs in the FMCG segment and the growth of the homogeneous product (shampoo) was about 22%; Mr. Jones must take into account the following important issues address accordingly: a. Market Segmentation: Pamela Shampoo requires to revisit its segmentation strategy and then must decide whether the company will choose mass marketing, segmented, niche or micro marketing. For this particular purpose Mr. Jones can involve the market research companies. b. Based on the segmentation strategy, the company must then choose the target market. c. The company should revisit its pricing strategies and should calculate the Break Even units of sales and carefully select the type of pricing that will be helpful in struggling times. d. The company must realize that the product is positioned against its global brands such as Pantene, Head & Shoulder, Clear etc. and few local brands as well. So the competition is very high. e. The company must go for line filling strategy and must increase depth in its product systems. It can have baby shampoo, herbal shampoo, anti-dandruff and other varieties by keeping an efficient product mix. f. It may think of co-branding strategies with possible companies who may be involved with production and distribution/market hair oil.  g. Must rearrange the sales force. Rather than having its own sales force and incurring major fixed cost, it can rely on its distributors as distribution channels. h. Must have Proper packaging and labels for the products that convey the descriptive and persuasive information to consumers. The labels that the containers will use must be attractive and eye-catching.

My Story – It all started when I was driving down Bullet Avenue

It all started when I was driving down Bullet Avenue. I was on the night shift, I work for the L.A.P.D, and I'd been working for L.A.P.D for longer than I care to remember. I've seen a lot, a lot of nasty things that most people wouldn't want to know happen or see happen for that matter; some call it the stuff of dreams, I call it the stuff of nightmares. Anyway, a familiar voice mumbled out of the radio. It was my mentor Jimmy, he had shown me the ropes when I was just a kid, we went through the good the bad and the very ugly, he was my friend if there was at least one person I could trust in this world it would be Jimmy. I remember what he said like it was yesterday ‘Hey Max, we had a report of a disturbance in some apartment block on 6th Avenue. Could you go check it out?† I naturally said yes. I took a left at 4th because of the road works ahead. When I arrived I got out of the car and there was this certain coldness in the air, a sick smell that normally told me something wasn't right. To my right there were some tramps, or rough sleepers as they are formally called, huddling up in the ally trying to keep warm in the cold night. I looked a little closer and noticed that that wasn't the only thing they were doing. A needle appeared in one of their hands I thought I wouldn't intrude on their good time just in case a needle was not the only thing they were carrying. I strolled past them, without even a blink they carried on. I got to the entrance of the apartment block and opened the old double pine doors and was not surprised to see it was just like every other apartment on the block. A dirty mess of old newspapers and furniture scrolled out on the floor like a typhoon had just hit. There was stairs straight ahead of me and a couple more rough sleepers who seemed to be oblivious to the fact that I had just walked in. Both were next to each other, they were so absorbed by the drugs they didn't even seem to look alive just a cold long dead stare out of the far window, the drug they had just injected was strange, not any drug I new of, and I knew every single one that anyone was using . I got a glimpse of the formula, a clear slime green liquid in the syringe. I decided to come back later and take a sample. But for now I would pursue the disturbance. I followed the wooden stairs up into a long corridor and then I stopped dead in my tracks as the faint sound of voices came from the door with the big dent in it. I moved closer so I could hear what the conversation was about, I couldn't quite make out the words but the voices were clearly of a man and a woman. I had now reached the door. I moved to the side and then an ear piercing scream sunk through the walls, it lasted for a couple of seconds then everything went silent. I had already reached for my gun, but at this, with one kick, the door was down. I appeared to be in the living room. The place was a mess: books on the floor, tables knocked over, and cupboards open. I looked down and a trail of burning red blood grabbed my attention. It lead into the room opposite. The disturbance I was called to checkout had now turned into a possible murder enquiry. I was starting to think that this could get very dangerous. As I moved towards the opposite room the trail of blood got thicker and more apparent a murder had been committed. I leaned to the side and with a forward role into the room I swung my gun out and was ready to face the culprit but I was faced with something almost completely different and more horrifying. A dead women her cold dead eyes and the pail expression told me that she had been the victim of a vicious stab wound this was confirmed by the incredibly horrific gash in her side, throat and left leg. By the way she was dressed I'd say she was a prostitute but the question was who killed her and who her client was. Instead of the average everyday cops who just ask questions and sit in there cosy little office eating donuts, I think actions speak louder then words so I get out in the field, probably because I don't have a home life, that had been taken away from me along time ago but back to the situation in hand I started to look through her possessions. I new it was her apartment because I recognized her face in the photos sprawled out on the bed-side table. I found various documents that suggested that she hung out with the wrong type of people in simple terms people who had various powers around town â€Å"gangsters†. But I was still yet to find the murder weapon. I'm not like the cops in the movies always calling for back up I could do it on my own. I eventually heard the familiar sound of sirens that usually made me uneasy but this time just made my movement quicker and more fluent. I was now determined to find the vital clues that I needed to possibly solve this mystery and make me feel like I've earned my pay. suddenly it hit me a white little card with the writing papa Vitto's pizza restaurant laying in the cool, burgundy red blood I picked it up Vitto was associated with some of those people I was talking about earlier he was not a the type of man you would mess with, for example, his wife was found out to be having an affair, the guy she had the affair with was later found floating down the river in three separate suitcases and Vittos wife wasn't found at all but the thing was if Vitto liked you it was quite an advantage he could do things for you, give you what you wanted but if you were one of the unlucky ones Vitto did not like, kind of like me then you might as well leave town. I thought I would I'd pay him a visit since he or one of his thugs was the prime suspect. Since it had been so long since I had my encounter with vitto, I decided to arrange a meeting with him first and not drop in uninvited. I new where one of his many associates hung out so I went to arrange it with a little persuading he did what I said. When I got to the pizza place if you could call it that, It was just like I remembered it a dump, it was a small building backed on to a dock with warn out and stained walls and almost shattered windows, at night it was like a haunted hell house I opened the huge double doors and approached the counter I had that strange feeling where something didn't quite feel right I got to the counter and rang the bell it was just as bad inside than outside, tables and chairs scattered everywhere. After a while of waiting I smelt the unnatural smell of gas which numbed the reality that I had been set up I dashed for the front double doors which by this time had been somehow locked I don't think it was a coincidence I had been lured in like a mouse to cheese. I made a dash for the back door through the kitchen it was blocked with a huge wooden cabinet there was no point moving it. it looked at least 500 pounds just when I was reflecting on my life and thinking of the shattered dreams and lost loved ones. I then caught a glimpse of a shiny object in the corner of my eye. I had been given a second chance it was an axe I grabbed it with a tough grip and saw my target I ran towards the cabinet swinging the axe about like a man possessed the axe hit with such a force that the cabinet doors shattered like glass on a concrete floor. It gave me new hope so I kept hacking and hacking the cabinet disappeared within a flash one swipe with the axe and the door was gone too. I jumped out on to the peer and made a leap for the water the cold icy feeling numbed me to my brain while I was submerged all I could hear was the almost fatal sound of the pizza place becoming a crater in the ground. After this experience the option of lying low looked good to me so I spent a bit of time sweating it out in my friend Jimmy's apartment. Then I would be back on that case like a kid eating cake.

Bureaucracy in the Philippines - Book Review

Book Review The Bureaucracy in the Philippines Dr. Onofre D. Corpuz - Institute of Public Administration: University of the Philippines, 1957. 268 pp. This book is about the administrative history of the bureaucracy in the Philippines. It spans from the 1560’s when Spain undertook to administer the affairs of the natives of the archipelago to the 1950’s when the Filipinos assumed the responsibility of self-government.The author presented the significant phases in the evolution of our administrative apparatus to identify the important characteristics of the current form and functions of the civil service of the Philippine government. In Chapter 1, Dr. Corpuz described the native life of the inhabitants before the arrival of the Spaniards. These inhabitants were not strangers to progress and civilization. Although the pre-Spanish Filipinos were in a state of cultural maturity, it was maturity at a low level.It was a stage of cultural inadequacy based on an old and simple framework. The author briefly discussed the transition of the Philippine bureaucracy from the time that we’re still a colony of foreign nations to the time that the Philippines became an independent republic. The author reconstructed, in Chapter 2, the setting in which Spain’s colonial bureaucracy appeared around the middle of the 16th century. The author also described how the Spanish colonial government â€Å"organized† the colony in Filipinas.Also discussed was the expedition headed by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 21 November 1564, how his peaceful diplomacy won the allegiance of many subjects and the establishment of Manila as a city and Legazpi’s capital. Chapter 3 discussed the two concepts on how bureaucracy may be viewed: (1) as an organization or apparatus; (2) as a collection of individual bureaucrats, placing more emphasis on the 2nd concept of bureaucracy – the realities of bureaucratic behaviour. The chapter is devoted to a study of Spanish bureaucrats. The author also discussed the following: a. how bureaucrats are appointed in Filipinas and in Spain – the processes and criteria involved in obtaining the king’s favor; b. how to acquire/purchase an office where many bureaucrats obtained their positions; c. detailed conditions under which Spanish bureaucrats as a whole lived and worked; and d. ow the administrative organization was centralized in Manila for control and communications purposes. The next two chapters are dedicated in highlighting the essentials of life and service of the highest-ranking bureaucrats – the Presidente-Gobernador (Governor-General), the Oidores, Fiscales, and Reales Oficiales – who constituted the governmental bureaucracy in Manila. The author, in Chapter 4, described the governor-general of Filipinas which had the attributes of a super-bureaucrat.Also discussed, in general, was the performance of the different governor-general appointed in Filipinas and illustrated the conflict between the clergy and the governors and the instability of the governorship – which office was considered as an opportunity for private material profit. Chapter 5 is dedicated to the discussion of the Audiencia of Manila and its bureaucrats and the Royal Officials. The Audiencia performed functions of a superior judicial tribunal; the highest court of justice in the colonies.The author discussed the conditions, restrictions, the legislative and judicial functions and the organizational changes of the office. Also discussed are the functions and conditions of the â€Å"Royal Official† (Reales Oficiales) or the oficial de la real hacienda who are the administrators of the king’s personal estate or the royal hacienda. It should be remembered that the various dominions/colonies in the Indias are considered as the king’s personal property or estate. â€Å"As a monarch, he entrusted the government of his kingdoms and provinces to viceroys, governors-general, and Audiencias.As a proprietor, he entrusted the administration of his estate and revenues to the royal officials. † The structural defects and administrative weakness of the bureaucracy is brought about by the pervasion and corruption of the office of men who only saw the position as a means for private personal gain. In Chapter 6, the author then discussed the conditions, restrictions and all the functions and duties of the provincial government and the provincial officers/bureaucrats commonly known as alcade-mayor. The alcaldes are the provincial equivalent/counterpart of the governor-general of the archipelago.The author also highlighted how the alcalde-mayor was also the judge with provincial jurisdictions and since these bureaucrats have no background in the law and having arrived in the province with questionable motives, it is therefore said that the â€Å"pr incipal vice† of province administration is the absence of â€Å"true justice†. The author emphasized that provincial administration has no direction since the system of concentration of functions is in one man and this has disadvantageously rendered the bureaucrat inefficient. This inefficiency neglect or non-performance of duties – easily turned into oppression.The alcadeship evolved into an office of abuse since there were no checks to the alcalde’s excesses and frauds. He is the judge – administrator – military commandant of the province – an action against him is futile. However, reforms were undertaken to improve the administration in the provinces. But these reforms weren’t able to bear fruit for the main reason that they were enacted too late. Discussed also were the native bureaucrats and the system of local government; the principalia which was a social and political aristocracy on the village level – the details of its participation and the conditions under which it was actually exercised.The author also described the undeniable influence or relative power of the clergy in civil and political life, them being more â€Å"unified† than the group of the bureaucrats. In Chapter 7, the author summarized the weaknesses of the Spanish colonial bureaucracy, fundamental of which was the internal moral corruption of its members made worse by the fact that the Madrid government placed its political faith not in the bureaucracy but in the church. Discussed also as the futile attempts to reform the colonial bureaucracy and the general structure of the central administration and the budgetary practices of the central government in Manila. Chapter 8 is a â€Å"discussion of the principal events and factors that shaped the new era that constituted the basis upon which the new political administration was established, and that provided the context for the new bureaucracy and the new bureaucrats. † The author discussed Aguinaldo’s action and the general features of the scheme to organize the town and provincial governments.The new institutions under the Revolutionary Government were closely patterned after the preceding scheme of the Spanish a dministration due to the lack of time for innovations, but the local authorities and institutions were now more popularly based and autonomous. Discussed also was the principal features of the Malolos Constitution of 1899 which was an admirable work of constitutionalism, considering the difficult conditions of the times and the inexperience of its authors. Ideal as it may seem, the first attempt to self-government was aborted as the Philippines was once again under a colonial regime – now in the hands of the Americans. According to the author, the American occupation of the Philippines is generally pointed out as a major phase in the evolution of modern colonial policy and colonial administration. During this time, there were increased economic activities – in agriculture, manufacturing and commerce – such that the colony enjoyed vastly improved standards of living and for the first time, the masses have a chance to escape from poverty. The author also studied the formative period, from 1900 to 1913, of the new bureaucracy.The author identified the salient features of this advanced civil service system which is in great magnitude different from that of the old Spanish system. In Chapter 9, the author focussed on the period from 1913 to 1935 in which the civil service continued to evolve and which was respected by both American authorities and Filipino officials and politicians. But the evolutionary development was unremarkable. It was a steady but rather dreary process, unmarked by ba sic structural alteration or dramatic innovation in the service itself. During this period, both houses of the lawmaking bodies were under Filipino control.This period also marked the beginning of Filipinization of the civil service. In Chapter 10, the author discussed how the Philippine Civil Service, from 1935 to 1955, passed through brief but basic evolutionary governments. First discussed was the establishment of the Philippine Commonwealth Government (November 15, 1935) which completed the gradual transfer of government functions to Filipinos. The Philippine Government was a 10-year transitional government – republican in form, Filipino in personnel and has autonomy in domestic affairs – to be superseded by the Republic of the Philippines on July 4, 1946.Further discussed were the constitutional changes and phases of which the civil service is also undergoing namely: First, the phase of consolidation and further expansion, lasting until the Japanese invasion; Second, the phase of dislocation and demoralization covering the war and ear ly postwar years; and Third, the phase of reconstruction and modernization. The author, in the last chapter, summarized the important phases in the bureaucracy in the Philippines from the pre-Spanish period to the year 1955 which was discussed in detail in the preceding chapters. Also discussed briefly were the weaknesses and characteristics of the bureaucracy.This work of Dr. Onofre Corpuz is a vital contribution to the study of Public Administration. I have but good words for this work. The topics were well-organized and clearly written. He was able to piece together different historical data and I was impressed by the historical information presented in this book and his sources which dates from early 1600’s. Because of this book, the reader will have a better background and clearer understanding of the current conditions of the bureaucracy. I hope there could be further study on the conditions of the bureaucracy, if significant change has been attained after 1955.